Joalys · Sourced direct at the mine

The Map of Origins

Every stone comes from a country. Often from a single valley. This is where I go to find them.

I’ve spent close to two years sourcing in Sri Lanka, buying stones at the mine. The same names kept coming back: Ceylon, Mozambique, Madagascar. So I mapped them. For each gem I marked the origins that matter and what sets them apart, because a Ceylon sapphire and an Australian sapphire don’t read the same once they’re set.

Pick a stone. The map shows where the best ones come from, and why.

66 stones, as many geographies
Select a stone to reveal its terroirs.
Pick a stone
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“Where does a beautiful stone truly come from?”

Choose a stone on the left
Les terroirs de la pierre choisie apparaîtront ici, classés du plus prisé au plus accessible.
Elias
Joalys, gemstone sourcer

I’m putting together a tour across France to show my stock in hand, region by region. If you’d like me to stop by your atelier, write to me.

Write to me →

Every stone, and where it comes from

The full index — each coloured gemstone and the terroirs that define it, from the reference origin to the secondary sources.

Agate

  • Rio Grande do Sul · Brazil — Reference. World's leading producer; multicoloured banded agates and massive geodes exported globally.
  • Artigas · Uruguay — Major source. Known for amethyst agates and intense purple banding, often heat-treated.
  • Khambhat (Cambay), Gujarat · India — Secondary origin. Historic center of agate cutting and export for millennia; ribbon and carnelian varieties.
  • Central Plateau / Tulear · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Major source of landscape and dendritic agates, prized by collectors.
  • Montana (Montana agate) / Oregon · United States — Secondary origin. Montana agate — translucent with black dendritic inclusions — is a local specialty, set in jewelry alongside sapphires from the same region.

Alexandrite

  • Ural Mountains · Russia — Reference. The absolute benchmark: bluish-green in daylight, purplish-red in incandescent light — mines nearly exhausted today, specimens found in antique jewelry.
  • Minas Gerais (Hematita) · Brazil — Major source. Major discovery in the early 1980s; high potential but irregular production; can yield fine-quality alexandrites with strong colour change.
  • Ratnapura (alluvial deposits) · Sri Lanka — Secondary origin. Major source; stones often larger than Russian material but greens tend yellowish and reds brownish rather than purplish — chromatic quality below the Urals.
  • Sandawana · Zimbabwe — Secondary origin. Established African source, counted among other origins; stones generally small but with a clean colour change.
  • Andhra Pradesh (Araku Valley) · India — Secondary origin. Active contemporary source; variable production, some stones show a good colour change but often too dark in tone.
  • Lake Manyara · Tanzania — Secondary origin. Emerging African source; limited production, contributes to the overall East African alexandrite supply.

Amazonite

  • Crystal Peak, Pike's Peak — Colorado · United States (Colorado) — Reference. Historic reference source; large crystals often intergrown with smoky quartz, prized collector specimens.
  • Minas Gerais · Brazil — Major source. Major commercial source; steady production of ornamental-grade cabochons and beads.
  • Ilmen Mountains, Urals · Russia — Major source. Historic Ural deposits; Russian amazonite known since the 19th century, intense blue-green hue.
  • Itasy region / Antananarivo · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Notable African producer; good blue-green colour material destined mainly for beads and cabochons.
  • Rajasthan · India — Secondary origin. Secondary source; Indian amazonite is largely processed locally into beads and carved objects.

Amber

  • Kaliningrad region (Baltic coast) · Russia — Reference. Primary world source — yellow/golden amber extracted by open-pit mining and high-pressure water jets; villages northeast of Moscow form a secondary inland source.
  • Baltic Sea coast (Gdansk, Lithuanian coast) · Poland / Germany / Lithuania — Major source. Historic Baltic zone — amber gathered on beaches or mined; European preference for milky/cloudy amber, clarified with oil; nicknamed 'Gold of the North.'
  • Northern region (Santiago de los Caballeros / La Cumbre) · Dominican Republic — Secondary origin. Second largest volume worldwide; extracted by traditional hand-digging; renowned for extremely rare fluorescent blue amber of superior value.
  • Chiapas · Mexico — Secondary origin. Notable source of tropical amber, often very rich in plant and insect inclusions; yellow-orange to red hues.
  • Hukawng Valley (Kachin) · Burma — Secondary origin. Burmese amber (burmite) is among the oldest known (~99 Ma); exceptional paleontological inclusions, highly prized by scientific collectors.

Amethyst

  • Lusaka region / Copperbelt · Zambia — Reference. World reference for top quality: intense purple, maximum saturation, small sizes but unmatched colour — the trade uses 'Zambian' to mean top colour.
  • Maraba (Para) & Rio Grande do Sul · Brazil — Major source. Largest producer by commercial volume; large crystals but often paler colour; Maraba locality = uniform clarity and large facetable stones.
  • Artigas (border with Rio Grande do Sul) · Uruguay — Secondary origin. Geological extension of the Brazilian basin; can produce darker material rivaling African quality; colour zoning is common.
  • Catamarca Province / Patagonia · Argentina — Secondary origin. Material often similar to Brazilian but can reach darker tones; emerging source.
  • Central zone / Karibib · Namibia — Secondary origin. Secondary African source; contributes to the fine-colour African supply alongside Zambia.
  • Four Peaks Mine, Arizona · United States — Secondary origin. Historic mine reopened in 1998; produces fine to commercial quality amethysts, from rough to custom-cut — a notable American example.

Ametrine

  • Anahi Mine, Santa Cruz (Brazilian border) · Bolivia — Reference. World's sole source of natural ametrine; also produces natural amethyst and citrine; distinctive purple/orange colour zoning.
  • Minas Gerais (treated quartz) · Brazil — Major source. Source of raw material (zoned amethyst) for heat- or irradiation-treated ametrine — not naturally bicolour.
  • Urals (synthetic hydrothermal quartz) · Russia — Secondary origin. Hydrothermal synthetic quartz production; synthetic ametrine shows characteristic spicule inclusions (visible seed plates).

Andalusite

  • Minas Gerais · Brazil — Reference. Primary world source — the finest colours, including intense dark green and rare pink-red.
  • Andalusia · Spain — Major source. The eponymous region where the stone was first discovered and described.
  • Ratnapura (alluvial deposits) · Sri Lanka — Secondary origin. Secondary source, regular production from alluvial sand deposits.
  • South Australia · Australia — Secondary origin. Source of chiastolite (opaque cross variety); facetable andalusite is secondary.

Apatite

  • Ilakaka / southern pegmatites · Madagascar — Reference. Major world source, especially neon blue and green apatites compared to Paraiba.
  • Minas Gerais · Brazil — Major source. Major pegmatite source; the region is also prolific for aquamarine and tourmaline.
  • Durango / Hidalgo · Mexico — Secondary origin. Major source, known for prismatic yellow and green crystals.
  • Mogok Stone Tract · Burma — Secondary origin. Major source; Southeast Asia's iconic coloured stone region.
  • Zambezia Province / Nampula · Mozambique — Secondary origin. Secondary source, African pegmatites with strong potential for blue apatites.

Aquamarine

  • Minas Gerais (Teofilo Otoni) · Brazil — Reference. The world reference source since 1811; large sizes, deep saturated blue, massive production of clean stones across all sizes.
  • Gilgit-Baltistan pegmatites · Pakistan — Major source. Large crystals (up to 30 cm), light blue-green to vivid blue, sometimes ink blue; a significant source outside Brazil.
  • Yunnan / Xinjiang · China — Secondary origin. World's largest producer by volume of small commercial sizes; very pale, clean stones used in mass-market jewelry.
  • Jos Plateau · Nigeria — Secondary origin. Known for intense colour in small sizes (< 5 ct); stones under 5 ct can outperform value-per-carat of larger stones of the same colour.
  • Antsirabe area / Ilakaka · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Notable African source, counted among producers of intense colour in small sizes.
  • Zambezia Province · Mozambique — Secondary origin. Growing African source, cited for intense colour in small sizes.

Benitoite

  • San Benito County, Diablo Mountain Range, California · United States — Reference. The only known gem source of benitoite in the world; California State Gem since 1985. Crystals generally < 1 ct, rarely > 2 ct.

Blue Sapphire

  • Kashmir · India (Kashmir) — Reference. The absolute market benchmark: intense velvety blue without greenish overtones, production nearly exhausted — the name alone justifies a record price.
  • Mogok · Burma — Major source. Major historic source alongside Kashmir; unheated Mogok stones command record auction prices.
  • Ratnapura · Sri Lanka — Major source. Primary source of fine large sapphires (> 100 ct); light to royal blue tones, often unheated and highly sought after in top-end jewelry.
  • Ilakaka · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Major emerging source since the 1990s; good to fine quality, now responsible for a significant share of global supply.
  • Chanthaburi / Kanchanaburi · Thailand — Secondary origin. Major commercial source and the world's leading cutting and treatment center; dark blue, iron-rich sapphires, often heat-treated.
  • Queensland / New South Wales · Australia — Secondary origin. The most abundant source by carat weight in history; dark inky blue with a characteristic greenish tint — commercial quality, poor market image despite the volume.

Blue Topaz

  • Minas Gerais (Ouro Preto region) · Brazil — Reference. The dominant world source of irradiable colourless topaz; the Capao mine is one of the largest producers; events in Brazil directly influence global supply and pricing.
  • Ratnapura · Sri Lanka — Major source. Second significant source of treatable colourless topaz; quality crystals suitable for irradiation to produce blue shades.
  • Jos Plateau · Nigeria — Secondary origin. Minor source of irradiable colourless topaz; cited among secondary African producers.
  • Karibib / Erongo · Namibia — Secondary origin. Colourless topaz (locally marketed as 'silver topaz') from pegmatites; crystals faceted averaging 5–6 ct, treated to produce blue.
  • Flinders Ranges, South Australia · Australia — Secondary origin. Minor source of irradiable colourless topaz among secondary world producers.
  • Mogok · Myanmar (Burma) — Secondary origin. Minor source of treatable colourless topaz; the Mogok region, famous for corundum, also produces topazes suitable for blue irradiation.

Chrome Diopside

  • Eastern Siberia (Yakutia) · Russia — Reference. The only known commercial source in the world — a region snowbound 6 months out of 12, with production constrained by the climate.
  • Outokumpu (North Karelia) · Finland — Major source. Historic Finnish deposits; marginal artisanal production, gem quality is rare.
  • Gilgit-Baltistan · Pakistan — Secondary origin. Secondary occurrences reported in metamorphic zones; very limited volumes.

Chrome Tourmaline

  • Tanga region / Umba Valley · Tanzania — Reference. Primary world source; produces highly saturated chrome tourmalines, intense emerald colour, exceptional sizes up to 6 ct and above.
  • Voi region / Taita Hills · Kenya — Major source. Historic African co-source with Tanzania; stones with a blue-green hue, well suited to calibrated cuts.
  • Mogok / Mandalay region · Burma — Secondary origin. Niche Asian source; fine material but limited production, less common than African sources.
  • Minas Gerais · Brazil — Secondary origin. Prolific green tourmaline mines overall; some pockets have yielded near-equivalent emerald green to African chrome tourmaline.
  • Kunar / Nuristan · Afghanistan — Secondary origin. Secondary Asian source of fine green and blue tourmaline; chrome tourmaline market contribution documented by the trade.

Chrysoberyl Cat's-Eye

  • Ratnapura (gem gravels) · Sri Lanka — Reference. World reference: the finest cat's-eyes, golden to honey coloured with a sharp milk-and-honey effect, found in alluvial gravels.
  • Minas Gerais (northeast) · Brazil — Major source. Major source; often artisanal mining; large-size stones.
  • Mogok Stone Tract · Burma — Major source. Mogok district, famous for its coloured stones; fine-quality chrysoberyl cat's-eye alongside rubies and sapphires.
  • Zimbabwe · Zimbabwe — Secondary origin. Secondary source; production of chatoyant chrysoberyl.
  • Madagascar · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Secondary source; contributes to global supply alongside other East African sources.
  • East Africa (generic) · East Africa — Secondary origin. Including several East African countries; variable quality.

Chrysoprase

  • Queensland · Australia — Reference. Discovered in 1965, Queensland chrysoprase is the world benchmark — from apple green to a rich green close to jadeite.
  • Goias State · Brazil — Major source. Major source, but colour is often olive green — less vivid than Queensland.
  • Tanzania · Tanzania — Secondary origin. Tanzanian chrysoprase in a yellowish light green, paler than the Australian benchmarks.
  • India · India — Secondary origin. Secondary source.
  • Silesia (historic region) · Czech Republic / Slovakia — Secondary origin. Historic European source of chrysoprase, mined since the Middle Ages.

Citrine

  • Anahi Mine (Santa Cruz) · Bolivia — Reference. Reference source for natural untreated citrine; the same deposit also produces ametrine (bicolour amethyst/citrine).
  • Maraba / Rio Grande do Sul · Brazil — Major source. Primary world source of heat-treated citrine from amethyst; Maraba amethysts fired over wood yield yellow to reddish-orange shades.
  • Zamora (Castile and Leon) · Spain — Secondary origin. Notable source of natural citrine.
  • Antananarivo region · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Major source of commercial to extra-fine natural citrine.
  • Artigas · Uruguay — Secondary origin. Produces deep-coloured citrines and amethysts, often in geodes; good saturation natural citrine.
  • Guerrero State · Mexico — Secondary origin. Source of natural citrine.

Colour-Change Garnet

  • Umba Valley · Tanzania — Reference. Alluvial deposits producing the most striking examples: blue-green in daylight / purple-red in incandescent light.
  • North-central alluvial deposits · Madagascar — Major source. Major source of pyrope-spessartine colour-change garnets, sometimes showing orange-pink or pink-violet shifts.
  • Gem-bearing deposits in the Ratnapura zone · Sri Lanka — Secondary origin. Historic examples found here but less spectacular than African sources; cited among the first known occurrences.

Coral

  • Gulf of Naples area (western Mediterranean) · Italy / Mediterranean — Reference. The absolute historic benchmark — red Corallium rubrum coral, unmatched quality, Neapolitan craftsmen have worked this material for centuries; pollution has drastically reduced stocks.
  • East China Sea / Japanese waters · Japan — Major source. Main Asian source feeding Neapolitan craftsmen; quality below the historic Mediterranean material.
  • Malaysian waters (South China Sea) · Malaysia — Secondary origin. Secondary Asian source, calcareous coral, lower quality than Mediterranean; cited alongside Japan and Philippines.
  • Philippine Archipelago (Philippine Sea) · Philippines — Secondary origin. Third major Asian source; same quality range as Japanese and Malaysian material; exploitation declining due to overharvesting and pollution.
  • Deep waters around Oahu, Hawaii · United States (Hawaii) — Secondary origin. Source of deep-water pink coral (down to 1,300 m) and very rare golden coral; black coral protected as an endangered species — export prohibited.
  • Queensland / Tasmania · Australia — Secondary origin. Formerly an important source of black coral (Queensland) and golden coral (Tasmania); export of all native coral prohibited since 1994.

Danburite

  • Charcas, San Luis Potosi · Mexico — Reference. Primary commercial source worldwide; colourless to pale yellow crystals of high clarity.
  • Mogok · Myanmar (Burma) — Major source. Historic deposit associated with the Mogok region, renowned for exceptional coloured stones.
  • Obira Mine, Oita Prefecture, Kyushu · Japan — Major source. Notable Japanese deposit; round brilliant-cut stones from the Obira mine.
  • Sakaraha region, southwest · Madagascar — Major source. Golden danburite of high clarity; remarkable specimens prized for their warm colour.
  • Danbury, Connecticut (type locality); Russell, New York · United States — Secondary origin. Type locality (discovered 1839 by C.U. Shepherd); original deposit now buried beneath the city.
  • Siberia · Russia — Secondary origin. Secondary source mentioned in trade literature; locality details poorly documented.
  • Bolivia · Bolivia — Secondary origin. Secondary deposit cited in trade literature; limited production.

Demantoid Garnet

  • Ural Mountains (Bobrovka) · Russia — Reference. The absolute historic benchmark; intense, vivid green stones with iconic horsetail inclusions, associated with the Tsars and Faberge.
  • Usakos (central Namibia) · Namibia — Major source. Discovered in the 1990s; yellow-green stones that can exceed 3 carats, without horsetails, but of comparable quality to Russian gems according to the market.
  • Kerman Province · Iran — Secondary origin. Vivid green stones, reaching up to 4 carats, with specimen photos from Kerman Province.
  • Val Malenco (Lombard Alps) · Italy — Secondary origin. Classic European deposit; limited production, stones primarily of collector interest.
  • Toliara region · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Secondary African source cited in the broader garnet context; irregular production, variable quality.
  • Durango State · Mexico — Secondary origin. Listed among demantoid sources alongside Greece and Mexico; anecdotal production.

Emerald

  • Muzo, Chivor, Coscuez · Colombia — Reference. The world standard: vivid, deeply saturated green — Muzo = pure green, Chivor = bluish-green, Coscuez = green fire. ~60% of global production.
  • Copperbelt / Kafubu · Zambia — Major source. African emeralds: fewer fractures than other sources, ~5% top quality, rich colour, ideal for the high end.
  • Sandawana · Zimbabwe — Major source. Some Zimbabwean emeralds are remarkably clean and fracture-free, making cutting and setting straightforward.
  • Bahia, Minas Gerais · Brazil — Secondary origin. Often commercial quality; colour bluer than Colombia due to higher iron content.
  • Swat Valley (Pakistan) / Panjshir (Afghanistan) · Pakistan / Afghanistan — Secondary origin. Secondary sources counted among the 40% non-Colombian supply; difficult access, irregular production.
  • Antananarivo region · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Emerging source counted among secondary producers contributing to the 40% of global non-Colombian supply.

Grandidierite

  • Tranomaro / Cap Andrahomana, Anosy Region · Madagascar — Reference. Primary world source: first primary deposit discovered in 2016 at Tranomaro, producing transparent gem-quality grandidierite. Original discovery 1902 at the Andrahomana cliffs.
  • Kolonne region · Sri Lanka — Major source. The only other known source of gem-quality grandidierite, minor production; no other deposit outside Madagascar has produced notable material.

Hessonite Garnet

  • Ratnapura (Ceylon stone / "cinnamon stone") · Sri Lanka — Reference. The emblematic historic source — the tie to the island is so strong that hessonite is nicknamed 'cinnamon stone' in homage to Sri Lanka, a major cinnamon producer.
  • Karnataka / Tamil Nadu (alluvial deposits) · India — Major source. Major source; steady production of standard orange-cinnamon calibrated sizes.
  • Guerrero State (metamorphic deposits) · Mexico — Secondary origin. Notable quality source: Mexico supplies a steady stream of bright orange hessonite of good quality.
  • Merelani River Valley / Tsavo (associated with tsavorite) · Tanzania — Secondary origin. Found in association with tsavorite in the same deposits; African source.
  • Minas Gerais (pegmatite deposits) · Brazil — Secondary origin. Secondary production included in the overall global supply.

Hiddenite (Green Spodumene)

  • Hiddenite, Alexander County (NC) · United States (North Carolina) — Reference. Historic type locality where A.E. Hidden discovered the stone in 1879; genuine chrome hiddenite is extremely rare.
  • Minas Gerais · Brazil — Major source. World's leading producer of gem-quality spodumene; commercial green hiddenite often originates from Minas Gerais.
  • Ampanihy / Southwest · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Notable spodumene source, including green varieties appreciated on the collector market.
  • Nuristan / Kunar · Afghanistan — Secondary origin. Afghan pegmatites producing kunzite and green spodumene; gem quality recognized by collectors.

Imperial Topaz

  • Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais (Capao mine) · Brazil — Reference. Dominant world source: intense orange to orange-red with reddish pleochroism; only 1–2% of extracted rough reaches imperial quality.
  • Ural Mountains · Russia — Major source. Historic origin of the term 'imperial': pink topaz reserved for the Russian Tsar's family in the 19th century.
  • Ratnapura · Sri Lanka — Secondary origin. Significant source of treatable colourless topaz; colourless topaz is important for the market but not classed as imperial.
  • Mogok · Myanmar (Burma) — Secondary origin. Minor source of colourless topaz.
  • Gilgit-Baltistan (Shigar region) · Pakistan — Secondary origin. Market-recognized source of gem-quality topazes.
  • Fianarantsoa Province · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Minor source of colourless topaz; marginal imperial topaz production, quality mainly treatable.

Indicolite Tourmaline

  • Minas Gerais (Cruzeiro, Virgem da Lapa, Jonas, Golconda mines) · Brazil — Reference. World's largest producer of gem tourmalines of all colours combined; Minas Gerais concentrates the richest pegmatites, including indicolite.
  • Kunar / Nuristan (pegmatites) · Afghanistan — Major source. Major Asian source of gem-quality blue and green tourmalines from northeast Afghan pegmatite belts.
  • Zambezia Province / Alto Ligonha · Mozambique — Major source. Important African producer of indicolite and blue-green tourmalines, notably cut at Idar-Oberstein.
  • North-central states (pegmatite belt) · Nigeria — Secondary origin. African source of gem tourmalines including blue varieties.
  • Antananarivo region / Antsirabe · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Versatile African producer; blue-green tourmalines from Madagascar often transit through Idar-Oberstein.
  • San Diego County, California (Himalaya mine, Pala, Stewart Lithia) · United States — Secondary origin. Historic source; San Diego County California mines sporadically produce small quantities of indicolite.
  • Gilgit-Baltistan (pegmatites) · Pakistan — Secondary origin. Among Asian gem tourmaline deposits alongside Afghanistan and Russia.

Iolite

  • Alluvial deposits (Ratnapura) · Sri Lanka — Reference. Major historic source; stones mined from alluvial deposits, recognized purple to blue-violet quality.
  • Orissa / Karnataka · India — Major source. Regular production of well-coloured crystals, characteristic blue-violet; established source.
  • Ilakaka region · Madagascar — Major source. Significant deposit discovered in 1994; reinvigorated the global iolite supply.
  • Central Tanzania · Tanzania — Secondary origin. African source; iolite in alluvial deposits, market driven by proximity to tanzanite.
  • Minas Gerais · Brazil — Secondary origin. American source; variable quality, supplementary market contribution.
  • Scandinavia (historic deposits) · Norway / Finland — Secondary origin. Historic sources linked to Viking navigators (who used iolite as a polarizing filter); current production low.

Jade (Jadeite)

  • Hpakan / Tawmaw · Burma — Reference. Primary world source of top-quality jadeite; intense imperial green, semi-translucent; the jade tract mining district between the Uru and Hwe rivers.
  • Motagua Valley · Guatemala — Major source. Historic Maya/Aztec source; produces a slightly darker, greyer green than Burmese material, and a highly prized black jadeite (Maya Black) discovered in 1975.
  • Siberia (Irkutsk / Sayan) · Russia — Secondary origin. Secondary source; commercial quality, present on the Asian market.
  • Itoigawa (Niigata Prefecture) · Japan — Secondary origin. Japan's only jadeite source, UNESCO-recognized; gem quality, green and lavender hues, highly valued on the local market.
  • California (Clear Creek / Coast Ranges) · United States — Secondary origin. Deposits with limited gem quality, interest primarily mineralogical.

Jade (Nephrite)

  • South Island — historic Maori deposits · New Zealand — Reference. Major nephrite source; the Maori used it for tools, weapons, and ceremonial ornaments. Local name: 'greenstone.'
  • Xinjiang (Hotan/Khotan) and cutting centers · China — Reference. Major nephrite producer; over 3,000 years of nephrite carving and art tradition.
  • British Columbia — Polar Mine (northern BC) · Canada — Major source. Produces high-quality green nephrite; 'Polar jade' (1995) is described as the brightest, greenest, most translucent nephrite discovered to date.
  • Siberia (Baikal / Sayan) · Russia — Major source. Secondary nephrite source mentioned among world producers.
  • Hualien Mountain — East Coast · Taiwan — Secondary origin. Nephrite source listed among secondary world producers.
  • Alaska & California (Wyoming) · United States — Secondary origin. Secondary nephrite source cited in the context of world producers.

Kunzite (Pink Spodumene)

  • Nuristan / Kunar · Afghanistan — Reference. The world reference source for large kunzites with intense pinkish-violet colours.
  • Minas Gerais · Brazil — Major source. Significant production of pale to intense pink kunzite, often in large crystals.
  • Gilgit-Baltistan / Skardu · Pakistan — Major source. Major trade source producing some of the most saturated kunzites on the market.
  • Antsirabe / Ilakaka · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Productive source of pastel kunzite, accompanying other gem pegmatites.
  • San Diego County, California · United States — Secondary origin. Historic origin: first kunzite identified in 1902 by George Kunz in this county.

Kyanite

  • Minas Gerais · Brazil — Reference. Major source of gem kyanite; blue to green facetable crystals extracted from metamorphic deposits in Minas Gerais.
  • Rajasthan / Karnataka · India — Major source. Blue kyanite deposits in metamorphic schist context; regular production of cabochons and beads.
  • Machakos / Nairobi region · Kenya — Secondary origin. African source of blue kyanite, often zoned blue-green, mined for the collector market.
  • Mogok region · Myanmar — Secondary origin. Kyanite associated with Mogok's corundum deposits; anecdotal production but quality crystals.
  • Gilgit-Baltistan · Pakistan — Secondary origin. Blue kyanite crystals from the Himalayan metamorphic belts of northern Pakistan.
  • Alps (Ticino / Valais) · Switzerland — Secondary origin. Classic Alpine kyanite deposits in blueschists; mainly prized by mineral collectors.
  • North Carolina / Georgia · United States — Secondary origin. Kyanite in Appalachian metamorphic context; historic production, mostly industrial but some gem pieces.
  • Urals · Russia — Secondary origin. Kyanite crystals from Ural metamorphic schists; marginal production for the gem market.

Labradorite

  • Labrador (peninsula) · Canada — Reference. Historic origin of the stone: discovered around 1770 by a missionary. Reference source for blue-green labradorescence.
  • Central and southern Madagascar · Madagascar — Major source. Primary source of 'rainbow moonstone' (labradorite with multicolour adularescence on a light background). Mined for decorative spheres and cabochons.
  • Ylamaa (South Karelia) · Finland — Secondary origin. Exclusive source of 'spectrolite,' the most precious variety with intense spectral yellow-orange-red reflections on a dark background.

Lapis Lazuli

  • Kokcha Valley, Badakhshan · Afghanistan — Reference. Historic world source since 700 BC; produces the finest quality lapis, intense royal blue, thanks to maximum lazurite content.
  • Atacama (Ovalle / Coquimbo) · Chile — Major source. Second world source; stone often greener and less saturated, abundant, widely seen in the everyday trade.
  • Lake Baikal, Siberia · Russia — Secondary origin. Historic source (eastern Siberia); solid quality, slightly lighter blue hue with frequent calcite spotting.
  • Sar-e-Sang (border zone) · Pakistan — Secondary origin. Minor source geographically close to Afghanistan; variable quality, modest production.
  • Huila / Cunene · Angola — Secondary origin. Minor African source; low production, commercially insignificant in the prestige market.

Larimar

  • Barahona Province — Los Chupaderos mine · Dominican Republic — Reference. The only known source in the world; volcanic deposit in the coastal mountains of the southwest, mined since the 1970s.

Malaya Garnet

  • Umba River Valley · Tanzania — Reference. The historic primary source: discovered in the 1960s while mining rhodolite in the Umba Valley. In Europe, malaya is called 'umbalite' after this region.
  • Alluvial deposits (Umba border region) · Kenya — Major source. Confirmed secondary source, geologically linked to the Tanzanian Umba deposits — similar stones found across the border.
  • Alluvial deposits · Sri Lanka — Secondary origin. Similar stones to malaya have been found here, though this deposit remains secondary compared to Umba.

Moonstone

  • Matara District / Meetiyagoda · Sri Lanka — Reference. World reference: colourless to semi-transparent stones with vivid, intense blue adularescence — the market 'blue sheen' standard.
  • Mogok Valley · Burma — Major source. Classic historic source; stones often white or light grey with strong adularescence, fine quality.
  • Rajasthan / Karnataka · India — Secondary origin. High-volume source: stones predominantly yellow, green, or brown with white adularescence; more accessible quality than Sri Lanka.
  • Tanga region / Arusha · Tanzania — Secondary origin. Emerging trade source: moonstones with bluish adularescence, often categorized with East African orthoclase feldspars.
  • Ilakaka region · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Recognized trade source since the 2000s; varied stones, often translucent, heterogeneous quality but significant volume.

Morganite

  • Minas Gerais · Brazil — Reference. World's leading producer; stones often peach/orange-pink, heat-treated to achieve the pure pink prized by the market.
  • Anjanabonoina · Madagascar — Major source. Historic discovery origin in 1911; deposits now exhausted, but responsible for establishing the stone's reputation.
  • Nuristan / Laghman · Afghanistan — Secondary origin. Confirmed; productive Afghan pegmatites for pink beryls of fine transparency.
  • Pala, California · United States — Secondary origin. Confirmed; historic California deposits, limited production, stone named in honor of banker J.P. Morgan (Tiffany's client).

Opal

  • Lightning Ridge, New South Wales · Australia — Reference. World reference source for black opal — dark background that intensifies the play of colour, highest qualities and strongest prices.
  • Coober Pedy, South Australia · Australia — Major source. World's largest producer of white opal; approximately 90% of global opal supply comes from Australia.
  • Queensland (boulder opal) · Australia — Major source. The only known source of boulder opal — opal on ironstone matrix, more durable, prized by high-end retailers.
  • Queretaro and Magdalena (Sonora) · Mexico — Secondary origin. Primary source of fire opal; red-orange to vivid red colour, often faceted — actively mined since 1870.
  • Addis Ababa region (Welo) · Ethiopia — Secondary origin. Small precious opals within a rock matrix; varied qualities with a distinctive play of colour, emerging source.
  • Northwest Brazil · Brazil — Secondary origin. Fire opal source discovered in 2000; body colour similar to Mexico but without play of colour; pieces can reach 9 kg.

Padparadscha Sapphire

  • Ratnapura · Sri Lanka — Reference. The absolute historic and reference origin; some dealers consider Sri Lanka the ONLY legitimate source of padparadscha; the purest lotus pinkish-orange colour.
  • Tunduru / Umba Valley · Tanzania — Major source. Recognized East African source; stones sometimes called 'African padparadscha' — tendency toward more orange/brown than Ceylon material, with ongoing debate about the designation.
  • Ilakaka · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Major fancy corundum source; Malagasy padparadschas are rarer than blue sapphires but do exist with acceptable colours by colour criteria.
  • Luc Yen · Vietnam — Secondary origin. Emerging source of pinkish-orange padparadscha-quality sapphires, recognized by the international gem market since the 2000s.

Painite

  • Mogok Valley, Ohngaing — skarn deposit between the Mogok Marble and the Kabaing Granite; main localities: Wet Loo and Thurein Taung · Myanmar — Reference. Near-exclusive world source of painite; alluvial and primary stones in the Mogok Valley zone, ~200 km north of Mandalay.
  • Namya (Namyazeik), northern Myanmar — ruby mine distinct from the original Ohngaing locality · Myanmar — Major source. Second officially known locality; a ruby mine in which painite was found independently of Mogok.
  • Madagascar · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Very rare documented occurrences; no commercial deposit; anecdotal source compared to Myanmar.

Paraiba Tourmaline

  • Paraiba State — Mina da Batalha · Brazil — Reference. The original and absolute reference source; the most intense neon blues and electric greens, copper-coloured in pegmatite; discovered in 1989 by Heitor Barbosa.
  • Rio Grande do Norte · Brazil — Major source. Adjacent zone to Paraiba State; same pegmatite type, complementary production to the historic origin.
  • Zambezia Province / Alto Ligonha · Mozambique — Secondary origin. Paraiba-like colours slightly less intense than Brazil; major new commercial source that has expanded global supply.
  • Oyo State / Ibadan · Nigeria — Secondary origin. Established African source of copper-bearing tourmaline; variable quality, colours less saturated than Brazil.

Pearl

  • Persian Gulf · Bahrain / United Arab Emirates — Reference. World reference source of natural fine pearls until the 20th century; decline began in 1908 with the petroleum industry.
  • Ceylon (coastal waters) · Sri Lanka — Major source. Among the main historic sources of natural pearls since antiquity, alongside the Persian Gulf.
  • Inland rivers and lakes · China — Secondary origin. Historic production of freshwater natural pearls for centuries, documented since imperial China.
  • Caribbean Sea coasts (Venezuelan waters) · Venezuela — Secondary origin. Discovered by Christopher Columbus on his 3rd voyage (1498); intensively exploited for ~100 years before overharvesting.
  • Pacific and Caribbean coasts of Panama · Panama — Secondary origin. Source mentioned during Columbus's voyages (1502); overharvesting and European imitations reduced supply.
  • European rivers (France, Scotland, Germany) · Europe (multiple) — Secondary origin. Natural freshwater pearls from European rivers cited as historic sources since antiquity.

Peridot

  • Pyaung Gaung · Burma — Reference. World reference source for large, fine-colour peridots: intense, saturated green with little yellow or brown component.
  • Suppat, Kohistan Valley (Himalayas) · Pakistan — Major source. Mine at 4,500 m altitude producing exceptionally clean crystals, some cut into stones of 50 ct or more.
  • San Carlos, Arizona (Apache reservation) · United States — Secondary origin. World's leading supplier of commercial calibrated peridot; crystals in basaltic nodules limiting size (generally < 4 ct).
  • Hebei Province / Jilin · China — Secondary origin. Source of commercial calibrated material, comparable to Arizona in size and quality range.
  • Luc Yen Province · Vietnam — Secondary origin. Commercial material often showing a pronounced yellowish or brownish component, less saturated than Burmese.
  • Zabargad Island (Red Sea) · Egypt — Secondary origin. The oldest known historic source (the pharaohs' stone), now exhausted; a symbolic and market reference.

Pink Sapphire

  • Mogok · Burma — Reference. The chromium that colours Mogok rubies is the same colouring agent in pink sapphire — stones there reach exceptional vivid saturation, to the point that the ruby/pink sapphire boundary is frequently debated.
  • Ratnapura · Sri Lanka — Major source. Historic source of fancy sapphires including orange padparadschas and pinks; Ceylon sapphires are renowned for being lighter and more luminous than Burmese or Thai material.
  • Sumjam / Padar Valley · Kashmir (India) — Major source. Active for less than 50 years but legendary; produces mainly blue sapphire — Kashmir pink sapphires are extremely rare and command record prices at auction.
  • Luc Yen · Vietnam — Secondary origin. Rising corundum source, producing all shades of pink, violet, and red; chromium is also the primary colouring agent here, as in Mogok.
  • Ilakaka · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Currently the world's leading source of good-quality sapphire overall; also produces pink and fancy sapphires in significant volumes, with mining operations often artisanal.
  • Tunduru / Umba Valley · Tanzania — Secondary origin. East Africa cited as a source of fancy colour sapphires; produces pinks and oranges of good saturation, growing presence on the international market.

Red Beryl (Bixbite)

  • Wah Wah Mountains, Utah · United States — Reference. The only known source in the world; deposit in rhyolite fractures, closed in the early 2000s; average yield of 0.5 to 0.8 ct of facetable rough per ton of rock.

Rhodochrosite

  • Sweet Home Mine, Alma · United States (Colorado) — Reference. World reference source for gem-quality transparent rhodochrosite, vivid ruby-red isolated crystals.
  • Andean mines (Huaron, Uchucchacua) · Peru — Major source. Major source of gem-quality transparent rhodochrosite, alongside Colorado.
  • Capillitas Mine, Catamarca · Argentina — Major source. Emblematic source of banded pink/cream stalactites (the so-called 'Rosa del Inca' rhodochrosite), highly prized as ornamental material.
  • North West Province (Hotazel) · South Africa — Secondary origin. Third source of gem-quality transparent rhodochrosite.

Rhodolite Garnet

  • Umba River / Kangala Mine · Tanzania — Reference. Primary source since the 1960s; alluvial purple-red pebbles often inclusion-free, up to 25 carats.
  • Zimbabwe (metamorphic rock deposits) · Zimbabwe — Major source. Major southern African source; rhodolites of a sustained purple-red hue.
  • Ratnapura (gem stone district) · Sri Lanka — Major source. Classic South Asian source; stones in red to pink-purple tones, alluvial.
  • Orissa State (Odisha) · India — Secondary origin. Significant secondary source; production of commercial rhodolites in calibrated cuts.
  • Ilakaka / Anavoha · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Notable emerging source; gem alluvials, stones of fine purple-red saturation.
  • North Carolina (Cowee Valley) · United States — Secondary origin. Historic origin: first known discovery worldwide, alluvial deposits worked 1880–1900, now exhausted.

Rose Quartz

  • Minas Gerais · Brazil — Reference. Primary world source; massive stone with milky translucence in medium to intense pink, sometimes with a star effect (star rose quartz).
  • Antananarivo region / Anjoma · Madagascar — Major source. Confirmed; produces massive rose quartz of good translucence, appreciated for cabochon cutting.
  • Rajasthan / Orissa · India — Major source. Confirmed; material often used for beads and cabochons, pale to medium pink colour.
  • Ratnapura District · Sri Lanka — Secondary origin. Confirmed; decent quality material, light pink colour; the gem island recognized for its mineralogical diversity.
  • Central Namibia (Karibib) · Namibia / South Africa — Secondary origin. Established market source; vivid pink rose quartz, occasionally facetable in rare near-transparent material.
  • Zambezia Province · Mozambique — Secondary origin. Emerging market source; growing production of massive rose quartz in medium to deep pink.

Rubellite Tourmaline

  • Minas Gerais — Cruzeiro, Ouro Fino, Jonas mines · Brazil — Reference. World's largest producer of rubellite tourmaline across all colours; the Cruzeiro mine alone yielded over 10,000 carats of clean cut stones from a single crystal.
  • Goudoumaria / northern Nigerian deposits · Nigeria — Major source. Prolific source since the 1990s; flooded the market with fine-quality rubellites to the point of driving prices down.
  • Northern pegmatites (Niassa, Nampula) · Mozambique — Major source. Major African source of fine-quality pink tourmaline and rubellite, cited among the leading continental sources.
  • Antsirabe / Sahatany Valley · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Source of fine red and pink rubellite; prolific production around the 2000s, low-temperature heat treatment used to remove brownish tints.
  • Kunar / Nuristan · Afghanistan — Secondary origin. Afghan pegmatite deposits renowned for fine-quality red and pink tourmaline among fine red tourmaline sources.
  • San Diego County, California — Himalaya mine, Pala mine · United States — Secondary origin. Importance now historic; between 1898 and 1914 the Himalaya mine produced ~100 tonnes of pink tourmalines mostly exported to imperial China.

Ruby

  • Mogok · Burma — Reference. The absolute world standard: intense red to vivid pinkish-red, very strong fluorescence, characteristic rutile silk; certified unheated stones command record prices.
  • Mong Hsu · Burma — Major source. World's leading supplier of commercial rubies since 1991; consistent quality, heat treatment nearly universal to correct blue zones.
  • Montepuez · Mozambique — Major source. Has become the most important source in the world since 2006; massive production, variable quality but the best stones rival Myanmar.
  • Luc Yen · Vietnam — Secondary origin. Rubies in marble host rock, very similar to Mogok; colours ranging from pink sapphire to fine red, characteristic blue patches before heat treatment.
  • Ratnapura · Sri Lanka — Secondary origin. Steady production of rubies and pink sapphires; hues often lighter, but regular supply appreciated by the international market.
  • Mangari (Tsavo-West) · Kenya — Secondary origin. Marble origin, high chrome/low iron — intense fluorescence; the best specimens approach Mogok character, but only ~5% facetable yield.

Scapolite

  • Loliondo region / Umba Valley · Tanzania — Reference. Primary world source of gem purple and yellow scapolite, notably in the alluvials of the Umba Valley.
  • Mogok · Myanmar (Burma) — Major source. Mogok produces high-quality pink and purple scapolite, often recovered alongside ruby and spinel.
  • Ihosy / Itasy · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Madagascar supplies notable quantities of yellow to colourless scapolite from southern coloured stone deposits.
  • Minas Gerais · Brazil — Secondary origin. Secondary production of colourless to pale yellow scapolite from pegmatite deposits in Minas Gerais.

Smoky Quartz

  • Minas Gerais · Brazil — Reference. Primary world source; produces the finest cherry brown-red colours with orange-red pleochroism.
  • Swiss Alps (rock crystals) · Switzerland — Major source. Renowned historic Alpine source; crystals often large and of exceptional clarity.
  • Colorado / Pike's Peak · United States — Secondary origin. North American source; large collectible crystals.
  • Cairngorm Mountains · Scotland (United Kingdom) — Secondary origin. Now-exhausted historic source; gave its name to cairngorm, the traditional Highland stone worn in Celtic jewelry.

Spessartite Garnet

  • North-central pegmatite deposits · Nigeria — Reference. The flagship source of the 1990s: highly saturated yellow-orange, calibrated sizes distributed worldwide through Idar-Oberstein.
  • Hollandine Mine, Kunene River Valley · Namibia — Major source. The first major African source of the 1990s; large-volume production, consistent quality.
  • Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Norte · Brazil — Major source. Pegmatite deposits supplying rough capable of producing spectacular cut spessartites up to 40 carats.
  • Lundazi zone · Zambia — Major source. Among the most recent and significant sources; stones of 2 to 11 carats.
  • Central and northern pegmatite deposits · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Major 1990s source that helped democratize spessartite on the international market.
  • Ratnapura (gem stone region) · Sri Lanka — Secondary origin. Long-established source, still active; documented example of 5.22 ct.

Sphene (Titanite)

  • Madagascar (alluvial deposits, co-extracted with quartz) · Madagascar — Reference. New discoveries in the late 1990s that reignited global interest in sphene; mining camp photo available.
  • Austria (Alps) · Austria — Major source. Classic historic source among recognized origins.
  • Brazil · Brazil — Major source. Source among sphene-producing countries.
  • Myanmar (Burma) · Myanmar — Major source. Source among sphene-producing countries.
  • Sri Lanka · Sri Lanka — Major source. Source among sphene-producing countries.
  • Canada · Canada — Secondary origin. Secondary source.
  • France (crystalline massifs) · France — Secondary origin. Secondary source.
  • Mexico · Mexico — Secondary origin. Secondary source.
  • Russia (Urals) · Russia — Secondary origin. Secondary source.
  • United States · United States — Secondary origin. Secondary source.
  • Switzerland (Alps) · Switzerland — Secondary origin. Secondary source.

Spinel

  • Mogok · Myanmar — Reference. Historic world reference source; red and pink spinels in marble, often alongside ruby; the finest vivid pinks come from Burma.
  • Ratnapura (alluvials) · Sri Lanka — Reference. Major historic source cited since antiquity; spinels extracted from alluvial deposits in association with corundum.
  • Pamir Mountains · Tajikistan — Major source. Source of exceptional large crystals, historically the most famous for imperial spinels; produced a 532 ct rough including one cut stone of 123.14 ct vivid pink.
  • Luc Yen Valley · Vietnam — Major source. Spinel and corundum coexist in marble and neighboring alluvial deposits; active local trading market.
  • Hunza Valley · Pakistan — Major source. Red spinels and garnets extracted from metamorphic formations; corundum and spinel in direct association.
  • Afghanistan (historic sources) · Afghanistan — Major source. Mentioned as a historic source alongside Sri Lanka and Tajikistan.
  • Morogoro region · Tanzania — Secondary origin. Red spinel in association with ruby; significant African potential for future supply.
  • Ilakaka · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Primarily known for blue and fancy corundum, but also produces spinel in various hues.

Sugilite

  • Wessels Mine, Kalahari Manganese Field, Northern Cape · South Africa — Reference. World's only commercial source of gem sugilite; discovered in 1979 at ~980 m depth; intense red-violet to blue-violet gem colours.
  • Iwagi Islet, Ehime Prefecture · Japan — Major source. Type locality: first discovered in 1944 by Ken-ichi Sugi; non-gem specimens, of historic and mineralogical interest.
  • Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec · Canada — Secondary origin. Translucent collector-quality specimens, vivid violet; no commercial gem production.
  • Liguria and Tuscany · Italy — Secondary origin. Minor occurrences reported; no known commercial production.
  • New South Wales · Australia — Secondary origin. Confirmed presence but no significant gem production.

Sunstone

  • Ponderosa, Dust Devil, Sunstone Butte mines — south-central Oregon desert · United States (Oregon) — Reference. World reference source: stones with copper inclusions, untreated, ranging colourless-red-green-bicolour, with an all-American marketing angle.
  • Rajasthan / historic reddish-brown aventurine feldspar sources · India — Major source. Historically the most familiar variety: reddish-brown aventurine feldspar with golden glitter, hematite inclusions.
  • Tvedestrand — classic oligoclase sunstone · Norway — Secondary origin. Historic source of oligoclase sunstone with golden schiller, the founding trade reference for the name 'sunstone.'

Taaffeite

  • Ratnapura, Elahera, Balangoda · Sri Lanka — Reference. Primary world source — gem-bearing alluvial gravels; pink and violet varieties dominant.
  • Mogok Valley · Myanmar — Major source. Mogok Valley: lavender and mauve varieties; co-located with ruby and spinel.
  • Southern Tanzania (alluvials) · Tanzania — Secondary origin. Emerging alluvial deposits; lower coverage than Sri Lanka.
  • Limestone sediments (precise location unpublished) · China — Secondary origin. Low-quality taaffeite in limestone sediments; poorly documented secondary source.

Tanzanite

  • Merelani Hills — Block D · Tanzania — Reference. World's only source of gem-quality tanzanite; Block D = artisanal production, fine intense blue-violet stones; the global reference standard.
  • Merelani Hills — Block C (TanzaniteOne) · Tanzania — Major source. Industrial TanzaniteOne operation; large calibrated stones, consistent quality, feeding the mass market.
  • Merelani Hills — Blocks A & B · Tanzania — Secondary origin. Historic initial extraction zones (1967); variable production, mixing small independent miners and semi-industrial operators.

Tiger's Eye

  • Northern Cape (Griquatown West) · South Africa — Reference. The world's historic reference source; massive deposits of crocidolite pseudomorphosed into golden quartz.
  • Rajasthan / Karnataka · India — Major source. Major producer for the mass market; cabochons and beads exported on a large scale.
  • Western Australia (Hamersley region) · Australia — Secondary origin. Pilbara deposits renowned for a particularly chatoyant golden tiger's eye.
  • Mandalay / Mogok area · Burma — Secondary origin. Secondary source.
  • Sabaragamuwa (Ratnapura region) · Sri Lanka — Secondary origin. Modest production; stone often accompanied by other local chatoyant quartzes.

Tsavorite Garnet

  • Tsavo National Park / Mwatate Valley · Kenya — Reference. The stone's birthplace — discovered in the 1960s, launched by Tiffany in 1974; large stones are rare and highly sought after, from both alluvial and primary veins.
  • Merelani region / Arusha · Tanzania — Major source. Second historic source in East Africa; steady production of calibrated rough for small sizes, characteristic vivid green colour.
  • Southern Madagascar / Ihosy area · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Rising source; feeds Asian cutting centers with sub-1 ct rough.
  • Pakistan · Pakistan — Secondary origin. Minor source; limited volumes, marginal role on the world market.

Turquoise

  • Nishapur, Khorasan · Iran (Persia) — Reference. The absolute historic reference: Persian turquoise, pure sky blue without matrix, remains the world colour standard.
  • Hubei Province · China — Major source. Currently the world's leading source of top-end sky-blue turquoise; dominates the contemporary market.
  • Globe (Arizona) — Sleeping Beauty mine · United States — Major source. Largest turquoise mine in the United States; produces a uniform blue without matrix, highly prized in contemporary jewelry.
  • Lander County, Nevada — Lander Blue mine · United States — Major source. Dark blue turquoise with black spiderweb matrix: an extremely rare collector piece (mine closed after ~100 lbs of rough).
  • Sinai Peninsula · Egypt — Secondary origin. Ancient source mined from 5500 BC by the pharaohs; no longer commercially significant but of major heritage value.
  • Atacama (northern Chile) · Chile — Secondary origin. Contemporary source associated with copper deposits; variable quality, positioned in the mid-range segment.

Watermelon Tourmaline

  • Minas Gerais (Virgem da Lapa, Cruzeiro, Jonas mines) · Brazil — Reference. Primary world source; Minas Gerais produces more pegmatite tourmalines than anywhere else on Earth, including classic bicolour elbaites.
  • Maine + San Diego County, California (Himalaya Mine, Tourmaline King Mine) · United States — Major source. The first historically known watermelon tourmaline deposits; Himalaya Mine produced ~100 tonnes between 1898 and 1914, mostly exported to China.
  • Central and northern Nigeria · Nigeria — Secondary origin. Secondary African source of elbaite tourmalines including bicolour watermelon specimens, cited among important African mines.
  • Southern Madagascar · Madagascar — Secondary origin. Notable African source for pink and red tourmalines, including watermelon tourmalines; found in gem-rich pegmatites.
  • Nuristan / Kunar · Afghanistan — Secondary origin. Afghan pegmatites known for bicolour and two-tone tourmalines of exceptional quality.
  • Goma region (North Kivu) · Democratic Republic of Congo — Secondary origin. African deposit reported for gem-quality watermelon tourmalines; emerging commercial source.

Yellow Sapphire

  • Ratnapura (alluvial plains) · Sri Lanka — Reference. World reference source: 25% of Sri Lankan production is orange/yellow; yellow sapphires are often very light, requiring heat treatment to achieve a deeper golden yellow.
  • Mogok · Burma — Major source. Major historic source of fancy corundum; Mogok deposits produce sapphires of all colours, including yellow, from metamorphic rocks.
  • Ilakaka / Sakaraha · Madagascar — Major source. Major emerging source of fancy corundum since the 1990s; basaltic deposits produce yellow and blue sapphires in volume.
  • Umba Valley · Tanzania — Secondary origin. Geologically rich zone for fancy corundum including yellow sapphire; the Umba Valley pegmatite deposits are considered among the world's richest.
  • Kanchanaburi / Chanthaburi · Thailand — Secondary origin. Historic cutting and treatment center for fancy sapphires; yellow sapphires produced in basaltic contexts similar to local blue sapphires.
  • Queensland / New South Wales · Australia — Secondary origin. Australian basaltic deposits produce blue, green, and yellow sapphires together (same chromophores: iron/titanium); significant commercial contribution.

Zircon

  • Ratanakiri · Cambodia — Reference. World's primary source of treated blue zircon; the majority of rough moves to Thailand for cutting and distribution.
  • Ratnapura · Sri Lanka — Major source. Major historic source; zircons in alluvial deposits alongside sapphires; wide colour range.
  • Mogok · Burma — Major source. Source; zircons found in association with Mogok's sapphire and ruby deposits.
  • Hart's Range (Northern Territory) · Australia — Secondary origin. Produces natural zircons with distinctive violet or plum hues; Zircon Hill mining site.
  • Luc Yen / Quy Chau · Vietnam — Secondary origin. Confirmed; deposits associated with sapphires; red and reddish-brown zircons.
  • Tunduru · Tanzania — Secondary origin. Produces attractive yellow zircons.